Description
An adviser’s guide to the classification that precedes every withholding decision on a payment to a foreign person: the gross-basis regime for fixed or determinable annual or periodical income and the net-basis regime for effectively connected income, and why an error in classification produces the wrong rate, certificate, return and withholding agent; the trade-or-business threshold, the trading safe harbors of section 864(b)(2) and the attribution of a partnership’s, estate’s or trust’s business under section 875; the asset-use and business-activities tests, the source rules and the three cases of foreign-source effectively connected income; the classification of each class of income, with the certificate and the reporting route for each; U.S. real property during the hold, including the net-basis election under sections 871(d) and 882(d), and at the sale under sections 897 and 1445; partnership items under sections 1446(a), 864(c)(8) and 1446(f); estates, trusts and partnerships as payers and payees, including the trustee’s withholding under section 1445(e)(1); documentation, reporting and the withholding agent’s liability; the treaty overlay for the twelve principal partner countries, under which the business profits article and the permanent establishment test govern the tax base, the force-of-attraction rule has no counterpart, real property income and gains remain taxable at the situs and securities gains are taxable only in the State of residence; the reception of the U.S. classification in Germany, France, Switzerland and the United Kingdom; the California withholding that runs in parallel without regard to any treaty; and two worked examples of a Los Angeles trust with a German-resident beneficiary, in the year of holding and the year of sale.
52 pages. Updated in September 2026.